Despite the revolutionary work women do for justice, peace, and international security, they continue to be underrepresented in formal peace processes. An International Peace Institute study measured the presence of women as negotiators, mediators, and signatories to 182 signed peace agreements between 1989 and 2011 and found that when women participate, peace agreements are 20 percent more likely to last at least two years, and 35 percent more likely to last for 15 years. It was the twentieth anniversary of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 1325 (2000) on women, peace and security, and though some progress has been made, women’s rights and leadership in peacebuilding continues to be lacking. What needs to happen to “shift the power” to women?
PEACEKEEPING
“Peacekeeping” as a term was brought to the global consciousness by former UN Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali in his An Agenda for Peace (1992). He defined it as the “deployment of a United Nations presence in the field, hitherto with the consent of all the parties concerned, [...] [as] a technique that expands the possibilities for both the prevention of conflict and the making of peace”. Peacekeeping missions consist of sequenced and targeted initiatives that aim to prevent the inception, intensification, protraction, or recurrence of conflict and, therefore, can be utilised prior to, during, or after conflict. Efforts tend to include democratic consolidation, through the establishment of electoral frameworks and active citizenship initiatives, improving justice systems, such as the reformation of constitutions and the retraction of censorship laws, as well as developing businesses and infrastructure. This must be done collaboratively and long-term.
There have been 71 peacekeeping operations since 1948, and currently there are a total of 85,782 personnel serving in 12 peacekeeping operations in locations such as Kashmir, Mali, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Aside from the US military, UN peacekeepers constitute the largest military force deployed abroad, with former President Barack Obama praising UN peacekeeping as “one of the world’s most important tools to address armed conflict”. Whilst, in essence, UN peacekeeping operations are paramount, and some have achieved notable successes, they often cannot fulfil their mandates due to mismanagement, and their long-term effectiveness can be questioned. For example, the presence of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) improved the human rights record of the country by releasing political prisoners, increasing free-speech opportunities, and hosting a fair election with a huge voter turnout. Cambodia’s economy also grew annually at seven-to-eight percent between 1991 and 1993. However, UNTAC ultimately failed to establish a politically-neutral environment and demobilise dissent groups, its success hampered by lag times in arrival and poor organisation. This, coupled with the mission’s short timeframe, resulted in weak and insecure state institutions and, arguably, is why Cambodia is now experiencing democratic backsliding.
The institutional design of peacekeeping is flawed. Transformative change rarely comes from within the system; it often comes from external parties, including women’s, local, grassroots, and youth movements. Women are integral to the peacebuilding process, and the involvement of civil society organisations, including women’s groups, makes a peace agreement 64 percent less likely to fail.
WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN PEACEBUILDING CAN IMPROVE OUTCOMES
Since the UNSCR 1325, the UNSC has developed its focus through nine additional resolutions, culminating in the Women, Peace and Security Agenda. Though recognised internationally, challenges remain. Women’s participation in conflict prevention and peacekeeping is inhibited by “patriarchy, inequalities, militarised masculinities and discriminatory power structures”. Women’s movements often do not have “established mechanisms to monitor and evaluate the implementation of gender agenda in post-conflict settings”. More progress is needed. Peace efforts still do not include enough women. In the Afghan talks, women represented around 10 percent of negotiators. Just 20 percent of negotiators were women in Libya’s political discussions, and 0 percent of negotiators were women in Libya’s military talks and Yemen’s recent peace efforts.
Conflicts can only be resolved through an inclusive process, and this means including women in more central roles to engage multiple stakeholders. Studies show that women who partake in peace processes usually focus more on reconciliation, education, transitional justice, and economic development. They also often speak up for excluded groups and the need to address underlying causes of conflict. In terms of peacekeepers on the ground, the prevalence of sexual violence and gender-based violence may limit a man’s ability to enter areas of the conflict zone, thus women have “access to 100 percent of the population, not only 50 percent”. The inclusion of women is also integral for ensuring that women’s concerns are addressed. In terms of assessing the peacefulness of a state, gender equality may be a stronger indicator when compared to other indicators, like GDP.
WOMEN AT THE HEART OF PEACEBUILDING
Norweigan Major General Kristin Lund was appointed the first female to serve as a Force Commander in a UN peacekeeping operation—the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus in 2014. Stephanie Williams, a US diplomat, is the Former Acting Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Libya, who aided in the mediation of the peace process. When the revolution began in Syria in 2007, Rajaa Altalli started to document human rights violations, and co-founded a non-governmental organisation that advocates for peace in Syria. At a UNSC debate on women, peace and security in 2018, she said that “we have [...] to push for women’s participation at every step, from the start of [the] peace process to the constitutional process”.
In Myanmar, women have fought in armed groups, campaigned for peace, and survived gender-based violence caused by the Tatmadaw. However, they remain underrepresented in formal peace processes. In the 2015 Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement, out of 50 negotiators, only two were women, and only one of the 16 negotiators speaking for the ethnic armed organisations was a woman. Naw Zipporah Sein, a Karen National Union political activist and one of the co-founders of the Women’s League of Burma, was elected to lead the negotiations of the ceasefire agreement on behalf of the armed ethnic conflict bloc. Ja Nan Lahtaw acted as one of the two co-facilitators for the talks and believes that promoting peace should include bolstering women’s standing in society, stating, “women need to take part in every stage [of the peace process]—not only at the key decision-making level but as key players and supporters in general”. Burmese women act as catalysts for protests and mass action campaigns, and they will continue to play an integral part in peace efforts.
Miriam Coronel-Ferrer made history as the first-ever female negotiator to sign a final peace accord with a rebel group (Moro Islamic Liberation Front). Half of the government negotiators were women and represented 27 percent of the total signatories to the final agreement. Beyond the formal peace process, women’s participation impacted the peace process in other ways. Women’s civil society groups observed the negotiations and made recommendations, broadening the agenda to include issues such as women’s political and economic engagement, and protection from violence. Public support was built as women’s grassroots groups led consultations with religious and Indigenous people, easing community fears. Furthermore, when violence threatened to sabotage the process after the 2012 Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro, local women leaders peacefully protested to motivate both groups to continue with the negotiation.
“SHIFT THE POWER” TO WOMEN
The UN can take a number of actions to utilise the strengths of women and enhance the overall approach to peacekeeping operations. Women need to play a more central role in the design and implementation of post-conflict resolution and peacebuilding activities; this can be facilitated by continued financial and technical support, as well as sustained and persistent encouragement from UN bodies and states. Processes of engagement need to be re-evaluated and re-defined; it is not enough to simply invite women to the table, but instead, measures need to be taken at regional, national, and international levels to invest in peace. Mechanisms need to be enforced so that women are protected in post-conflict situations. This acknowledges that in some societies, cultural pressures and norms prevent women from volunteering to be involved in the peace process. Lastly, the narrative surrounding security needs to change. Hard-security, such as counter-terrorism initiatives, militarisation, and increased investment in arms, is currently prioritised. This approach will not create long-lasting and sustainable peace.
The Women, Peace and Security Agenda has transformative potential, though a more comprehensive implementation is required. For instance, the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals are lacking from the agenda and from operation mandates. Women’s agency needs to be centralised, and more needs to be done to ensure women’s participation in peacekeeping and policy-making. As Miriam Coronel Ferrer stated, “you can’t really have a perfect agreement, but you make an agreement more imperfect if you don’t have the women’s perspectives in that agreement, or if you don’t have their interests and welfare also at the back of your mind as you negotiate all the different components”.
Emma has a Master's degree in International Relations (Terrorism and Political Violence) from the University of Birmingham. She has a specific interest in the international order, specifically geopolitics and the importance of multilateralism to rising global challenges such as refugee crises and international human rights. She is pursuing a career in international relations and research.